In this paper I seek to understand societal-level mechanisms associated with gender-based inclusion and exclusion from political life. The analysis finds two conceptually and statistically independent forms of female political participation: involvement in decision making, and the existence of organizations and/or positions controlled by, or reserved for, women. A multivariate analysis of data from 90 preindustrial societies identifies social structural, psychocultural, and behavioral variables affecting female inclusion and exclusion, and their role in a theory of female political participation is discussed.